Paper Abstract

Glucose metabolism relates to biochemical processes in living organisms and plays an important role in diabetes and cancer-metastasis. Although many methods are available for measuring glucose metabolism-activities, from simple blood tests to positron emission tomography, currently there is no robust and affordable device that enables monitoring of glucose levels in real-time. In this study we tested feasibility of applying a unique resonance-frequency based electronic impedance spectroscopy (REIS) device that has been, recently developed to measure and monitor glucose metabolism levels using a phantom study. In this new testing model, a multi-frequency electrical signal sequence is applied and scanned through the subject. When the positive reactance of an inductor inside the device cancels out the negative reactance of the capacitance of the subject, the electrical impedance reaches a minimum value and this frequency is defined as the resonance frequency. The REIS system has a 24-bit analog-to-digital signal convertor and a frequency-resolution of 100Hz. In the experiment, two probes are placed inside a 100cc container initially filled with distilled water. As we gradually added liquid-glucose in increments of 1cc (250mg), we measured resonance frequencies and minimum electrical signal values (where A/D was normalized to a full scale of 1V). The results showed that resonance frequencies monotonously decreased from 243kHz to 178kHz, while the minimum voltages increased from 405mV to 793mV as the added amount of glucose increased from 0 to 5cc. The study demonstrated the feasibility of applying this new REIS technology to measure and/or monitor glucose levels in real-time in future.

Paper Abstract

Electrical Impedance Spectroscopy (EIS) has shown promising results for differentiating between malignant and benign tumors, which exhibit different dielectric properties. However, the performance of current EIS systems has been inadequate and unacceptable in clinical practice. In the last several years, we have been developing and testing a new EIS approach using resonance frequencies for detection and classification of suspicious tumors. From this experience, we identified several limitations of current technologies and designed a new EIS system with a number of new characteristics that include (1) an increased A/D (analog-to-digital) sampling frequency, 24 bits, and a frequency resolution of 100 Hz, to increase detection sensitivity (2) automated calibration to monitor and correct variations in electronic components within the system, (3) temperature sensing and compensation algorithms to minimize impact of environmental change during testing, and (4) multiple inductor-switching to select optimum resonance frequencies. We performed a theoretical simulation to analyze the impact of adding these new functions for improving performance of the system. This system was also tested using phantoms filled with variety of liquids. The theoretical and experimental test results are consistent with each other. The experimental results demonstrated that this new EIS device possesses the improved sensitivity and/or signal detection resolution for detecting small impedance or capacitance variations. This provides the potential of applying this new EIS technology to different cancer detection and diagnosis tasks in the future.

Paper Abstract

Electrical impedance spectroscopy (EIS) has been investigated and emerged as a potential non-invasive, low cost, and convenient tool for prescreening and detecting breast abnormalities that could lead to developing breast cancers. However, the performance of conventional EIS is unacceptable in clinical practice. In our laboratory, we developed a new EIS approach based on resonance frequency measurements. This system relies on parameters generated by resonating breast capacitance with a fixed inductor in six different directions using the nipple as a reference electrode. The system detects breast tissue abnormalities due to capacitance changes caused by angiogenesis. Although preliminary testing results from a prospective clinical study were encouraging, we found that detection results were not robust. One of the primary reasons is that the measured EIS signals, in particular, resonance frequencies vary with lesion-depth. Using circuit theory we investigated and derived analytical expressions between the sensitivity of capacitance changes and parallel resistances to pathologies with respect to distances of the lesions from the nipple electrode. The resistance shorts the measured EIS signal thereby decreasing amplitudes of waveforms at resonance frequency. The theoretical analysis is consistent with our experimental observation, which provides valuable data and guidelines for us to develop and construct a new resonance-frequency based EIS system using a lumped parameter (resistance and multi-layer capacitance) based breast model, resulting in an optimal electrical circuit for future studies.

Paper Abstract

A new resonance-frequency based electronic impedance spectroscopy (REIS) system with multi-probes, including one central probe and six external probes that are designed to contact the breast skin in a circular form with a radius of 60 millimeters to the central (“nipple”) probe, has been assembled and installed in our breast imaging facility. We are conducting a prospective clinical study to test the performance of this REIS system in identifying younger women (< 50 years old) at higher risk for having or developing breast cancer. In this preliminary analysis, we selected a subset of 100 examinations. Among these, 50 examinations were recommended for a biopsy due to detection of a highly suspicious breast lesion and 50 were determined negative during mammography screening. REIS output signal sweeps that we used to compute an initial feature included both amplitude and phase information representing differences between corresponding (matched) EIS signal values acquired from the left and right breasts. A genetic algorithm was applied to reduce the feature set and optimize a support vector machine (SVM) to classify the REIS examinations into “biopsy recommended” and “non-biopsy” recommended groups. Using the leave-one-case-out testing method, the classification performance as measured by the area under the receiver operating characteristic (ROC) curve was 0.816 ± 0.042. This pilot analysis suggests that the new multi-probe-based REIS system could potentially be used as a risk stratification tool to identify pre-screened young women who are at higher risk of having or developing breast cancer.

Paper Abstract

In our previous study, we reported on the development and preliminary testing of a prototype resonance electrical impedance spectroscopy (REIS) system with a pair of probes. Although our pilot study on 150 young women ranging from 30 to 50 years old indicated the feasibility of using REIS output sweep signals to classify between the women who had negative examinations and those who would ultimately be recommended for biopsy, the detection sensitivity was relatively low. To improve performance when using REIS technology, we recently developed a new multi-probe based REIS system. The system consists of a sensor module box that can be easily lifted along a vertical support device to fit women of different height. Two user selectable breast placement “cups” with different curvatures are included in the system. Seven probes are mounted on each of the cups on opposing sides of the sensor box. By rotating the sensor box, the technologist can select the detection sensor cup that better fits the breast size of the woman being examined. One probe is mounted in the cup center for direct contact with the nipple and the other six probes are uniformly distributed along an outside circle to enable contact with six points on the outer and inner breast skin surfaces. The outer probes are located at a distance of 60mm away from the center (nipple) probe. The system automatically monitors the quality of the contact between the breast surface and each of the seven probes and data acquisition can only be initiated when adequate contact is confirmed. The measurement time for each breast is approximately 15 seconds during which time the system records 121 REIS signal sweep outputs generated from 200 KHz to 800 KHz at 5 KHz increments for all preselected probe pairs. Currently we are measuring 6 pairs between the center probe and each of six probes located on the outer circle as well as two pairs between probe pairs on the outer circle. This new REIS system has been installed in our clinical breast imaging facility. We are conducting a prospective study to assess performance when using this REIS system under an approved IRB protocol. Over 200 examinations have been conducted to date. Our experience showed that this new REIS system was easy to operate and the REIS examination was fast and considered “comfortable” by examinees since the women presses her breast into the cup herself without any need for forced breast compression, and all but a few highly sensitive women have any sensation of an electrical current during the measurement.